The World of Minerals: Nature’s Hidden Treasures and Their Profound Impact on Life and Civilization Minerals are the fundamental component...
The World of Minerals: Nature’s
Hidden Treasures and Their Profound Impact on Life and Civilization
To understand minerals, we must first define them with
scientific precision. A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid
substance with a definite chemical composition and an ordered internal atomic
structure. This definition, established and maintained by the International
Mineralogical Association (IMA), sets the standard for what qualifies as a true
mineral.
Let’s break down this definition into its essential
components:
1. **Naturally Occurring**: Minerals are formed by natural
geological processes, not manufactured by humans. While synthetic versions of
minerals exist—such as lab-grown diamonds or industrial quartz—they are not
classified as true minerals unless they replicate the exact conditions and
structures found in nature.
2. **Inorganic**: Minerals are not derived from living
organisms. This excludes substances like coal (which originates from plant
matter) and pearls (produced by oysters), even though they may resemble
minerals. However, some minerals form as a result of biological activity, such
as the calcium carbonate in seashells, but the mineral itself—calcite or
aragonite—is inorganic in composition.
3. **Solid State**: By definition, minerals exist in a solid
form under standard Earth surface conditions. This excludes liquids like water
or mercury, even if they occur naturally. However, ice—frozen water—is
considered a mineral because it is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with
a crystalline structure.
4. **Definite Chemical Composition**: Each mineral has a
specific chemical formula. For example, halite (common table salt) is composed
of sodium chloride (NaCl), and quartz is silicon dioxide (SiO₂). Some minerals
allow for slight variations in their composition through a process called solid
solution. For instance, the mineral olivine can range from magnesium-rich
(forsterite) to iron-rich (fayalite), forming a continuous series.
5. **Ordered Internal Structure (Crystalline)**: The atoms in
a mineral are arranged in a repeating, three-dimensional pattern known as a
crystal lattice. This ordered structure gives minerals their characteristic
shapes, cleavage patterns, and physical properties. Even when a mineral appears
amorphous to the naked eye, such as in fine-grained rocks, its microscopic
structure is crystalline.
These five criteria distinguish minerals from other natural
substances and form the basis of mineralogy—the scientific study of minerals.
The Classification of Minerals
Minerals are classified based on their chemical composition,
primarily by the anion (negatively charged ion) or anionic group they contain.
The most widely accepted system, developed by American geologist James Dwight
Dana in the 19th century and continuously updated, organizes minerals into
broad classes. Understanding this classification helps scientists identify,
study, and utilize minerals effectively.
1. Silicates: The Most Abundant Mineral Group
Silicate minerals are by far the most common, making up over
90% of the Earth’s crust. They are built around the silicate ion (SiO₄⁴⁻), a tetrahedral structure in
which one silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms. The way these tetrahedra
link together determines the subcategories of silicates:
- **Nesosilicates (Island Silicates)**: Isolated SiO₄
tetrahedra. Examples include olivine ((Mg,Fe)₂SiO₄) and garnet.
- **Sorosilicates**: Two tetrahedra sharing an oxygen atom.
Example: epidote.
- **Cyclosilicates**: Tetrahedra arranged in rings. Example:
beryl (source of emerald and aquamarine).
- **Inosilicates (Chain Silicates)**: Single or double chains
of tetrahedra. Examples: pyroxene (single chain) and amphibole (double chain).
- **Phyllosilicates (Sheet Silicates)**: Tetrahedra form
sheets. Examples: mica (muscovite, biotite) and clay minerals.
- **Tectosilicates (Framework Silicates)**: Three-dimensional
networks of tetrahedra. Examples: quartz (SiO₂) and feldspar (e.g., orthoclase
KAlSi₃O₈), the most abundant mineral group.
Silicates are not only geologically dominant but also
economically vital, forming the basis of ceramics, glass, and construction
materials.
2. Carbonates
Carbonate minerals contain the carbonate ion (CO₃²⁻). They typically form in
sedimentary environments, especially in marine settings where calcium and
carbonate ions precipitate from seawater.
Key examples:
- **Calcite (CaCO₃)**: The primary mineral in limestone and
marble. It reacts with weak acids like vinegar, producing bubbles of carbon
dioxide—a useful identification test.
- **Dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂)**: Found in dolostone, a rock
similar to limestone but with magnesium substitution.
Carbonates play a crucial role in the carbon cycle, storing
vast amounts of carbon in sedimentary rocks.
3. Sulfates
Sulfate minerals contain the sulfate ion (SO₄²⁻). They often form through the
evaporation of saline water in arid environments.
Important examples:
- **Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O)**: Used in plaster, drywall, and
cement. When heated, it loses water to form plaster of Paris.
- **Anhydrite (CaSO₄)**: The anhydrous (water-free) form of
gypsum, often found in deeper sedimentary layers.
Sulfates are critical in construction and agriculture, where
they help improve soil structure.
4.Oxides
Oxides consist of metallic elements bonded with oxygen. Many
are important ore minerals and exhibit distinctive physical properties.
Notable examples:
- **Hematite (Fe₂O₃)**: A major iron ore, reddish in color,
and responsible for the red hue of many soils.
- **Magnetite (Fe₃O₄)**: Magnetic iron oxide, used in
compasses and heavy media separation.
- **Corundum (Al₂O₃)**: Extremely hard (9 on the Mohs scale),
includes ruby (red due to chromium) and sapphire (blue due to iron and
titanium).
- **Ice (H₂O)**: Technically a mineral when solid, ice is the
most abundant oxide on Earth’s surface.
Oxides are essential in metallurgy, electronics, and
abrasives.
5. Sulfides
Sulfide minerals contain sulfur bonded to metallic elements.
Many are economically significant as sources of metals.
Common examples:
- **Pyrite (FeS₂)**: Known as “fool’s gold” due to its
metallic luster and brassy color.
- **Galena (PbS)**: The primary ore of lead, dense and cubic
in crystal form.
- **Chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂)**: A major copper ore, often
golden-yellow.
- **Sphalerite (ZnS)**: Primary ore of zinc.
Sulfides are typically found in hydrothermal veins and are
crucial for the production of base and precious metals.
6.Halides
Halide minerals contain halogen elements—fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, or iodine—bonded to metals.
Examples:
- **Halite (NaCl)**: Common table salt, formed by evaporation
of seawater.
- **Fluorite (CaF₂)**: Used in steelmaking, optics, and as a
flux in smelting. It exhibits fluorescence under ultraviolet light.
Halides are important in chemical industries and food
production.
7. Native Elements
These are minerals composed of a single element in its pure
form. Despite their simplicity, they include some of the most valuable
substances on Earth.
Examples:
- **Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu)**: Noble metals prized
for jewelry, currency, and electronics.
- **Diamond and Graphite (both C)**: Two allotropes of carbon
with vastly different properties—diamond is the hardest natural substance,
while graphite is soft and slippery.
- **Sulfur (S)**: Found near volcanic vents, used in
fertilizers and chemicals.
Native elements are rare but highly significant due to their
unique properties.
8. Phosphates
Phosphate minerals contain the phosphate ion (PO₄³⁻). They are biologically
essential and widely used in agriculture.
Key examples:
- **Apatite (Ca₅(PO₄)₃(F,Cl,OH))**: The primary source of
phosphorus, a critical nutrient in fertilizers.
- **Turquoise (CuAl₆(PO₄)₄(OH)₈·4H₂O)**: A hydrated phosphate
of copper and aluminum, valued as a gemstone.
Phosphates support global food production and are vital for
DNA and energy transfer in living organisms.
How Minerals Form: The
Geological Engine
Minerals do not appear spontaneously—they form through
specific geological processes that provide the necessary conditions of
temperature, pressure, chemical environment, and time. These processes are part
of the dynamic Earth system, driven by internal heat, tectonic activity, and
surface weathering.
1. Crystallization from Magma and Lava
The most common way minerals form is through the cooling and
solidification of molten rock. Magma (underground) and lava (on the surface)
contain dissolved elements that begin to crystallize as the temperature drops.
- **Slow Cooling (Intrusive)**: When magma cools slowly
beneath the surface, atoms have time to arrange into large, well-formed
crystals. Rocks like granite contain visible crystals of feldspar, quartz, and
mica.
- **Rapid Cooling (Extrusive)**: When lava erupts and cools
quickly, crystals are tiny or nonexistent, resulting in fine-grained or glassy
rocks like basalt or obsidian.
The sequence of mineral crystallization is described by
**Bowen’s Reaction Series**, which explains why certain minerals form at high
temperatures (e.g., olivine) and others at lower temperatures (e.g., quartz).
2. Precipitation from Solutions
When water evaporates or cools, dissolved ions can combine to
form solid minerals. This process is common in:
- **Evaporite Deposits**: Salt flats (like the Bonneville Salt
Flats) where halite, gypsum, and other salts precipitate as water dries up.
- **Cave Formations**: Calcite precipitates from dripping
water to form stalactites and stalagmites.
- **Hydrothermal Veins**: Hot, mineral-rich fluids deposit
quartz, gold, and sulfides in cracks and fissures.
3. Metamorphism
Existing minerals can recrystallize under high pressure and
temperature without melting. This process, called metamorphism, alters the
mineral composition and texture of rocks.
- **Contact Metamorphism**: Occurs near magma intrusions,
baking surrounding rock.
- **Regional Metamorphism**: Affects large areas due to
tectonic forces, forming minerals like garnet, kyanite, and talc.
Metamorphic minerals often grow in response to directed
pressure, creating foliated textures in rocks like schist and gneiss.
4. Weathering and Sedimentation
Surface processes break down rocks into smaller particles and
dissolved ions. Chemical weathering can transform one mineral into another—for
example, feldspar weathers into clay minerals.
Sedimentary minerals form when these materials are deposited
and compacted:
- **Clay Minerals**: Formed from weathered silicates,
essential for soil fertility.
- **Carbonates**: Precipitated in marine environments to form
limestone.
5. Biological Activity
While minerals are inorganic, living organisms can influence
their formation. Corals and shellfish secrete calcite or aragonite to build
skeletons. Microbes can reduce sulfate to sulfide, precipitating minerals like
pyrite in sediments.
6. Hydrothermal Processes
Hot, mineral-laden fluids circulate through the Earth’s crust,
often associated with volcanic activity. As these fluids cool, they deposit
valuable minerals in veins and fissures. This process forms many of the world’s
richest ore deposits, including gold, silver, and copper.
Physical and Chemical
Properties of Minerals
Geologists identify minerals by observing their physical and
chemical characteristics, which are direct results of their atomic structure
and composition.
1. Color
While the most noticeable property, color can be misleading.
Impurities can alter a mineral’s appearance—quartz can be clear, purple
(amethyst), pink (rose quartz), or smoky. Thus, color alone is not reliable for
identification.
2. Streak
Streak is the color of a mineral’s powdered form, obtained by
rubbing it on a porcelain streak plate. It is more consistent than surface
color. For example, hematite may appear metallic gray but leaves a distinctive
red-brown streak.
3. Luster
Luster describes how light reflects off a mineral’s surface:
- **Metallic**: Shiny like metal (e.g., galena, pyrite)
- **Non-metallic**: Includes vitreous (glassy, quartz), pearly
(talc), silky (asbestos), resinous (sulfur), and earthy (clay)
4. Hardness
Measured on the **Mohs Hardness Scale** (1 to 10), hardness
indicates a mineral’s resistance to scratching:
- Talc (1) – can be scratched by a fingernail
- Gypsum (2)
- Calcite (3)
- Fluorite (4)
- Apatite (5)
- Orthoclase (6)
- Quartz (7) – scratches glass
- Topaz (8)
- Corundum (9)
- Diamond (10) – the hardest known natural material
Field tests use common objects: fingernail (~2.5), copper coin
(~3.5), glass (~5.5), steel file (~6.5).
5. Cleavage and
Fracture
- **Cleavage**: The tendency to break along smooth, flat
planes due to weak atomic bonds. Mica, for example, has perfect basal cleavage,
splitting into thin sheets.
- **Fracture**: Irregular breakage. Quartz exhibits conchoidal
fracture, producing curved, glass-like fragments.
6. Density and Specific
Gravity
Density is mass per unit volume. Specific gravity compares a
mineral’s density to that of water. Galena feels heavy due to its high specific
gravity (~7.5), while pumice floats because it’s less dense than water.
7.Crystal Habit
This refers to the typical shape of a mineral’s crystals:
- Cubic (halite, pyrite)
- Hexagonal (quartz, beryl)
- Prismatic (tourmaline)
- Tabular (feldspar)
- Dendritic (manganese oxides)
8. Special Properties
Some minerals have unique traits:
- **Magnetism**: Magnetite is naturally magnetic.
- **Fluorescence**: Fluorite, calcite, and willemite glow
under ultraviolet light.
- **Double Refraction**: Calcite splits light into two rays,
causing objects viewed through it to appear doubled.
- **Taste**: Halite is salty (though tasting minerals is not
recommended due to toxicity).
- **Reaction to Acid**: Calcite and other carbonates fizz when
exposed to dilute hydrochloric acid.
Where Are Minerals
Found?
Minerals are distributed across the globe, concentrated in
specific geological settings:
- **Igneous Rocks**: Rich in silicates like feldspar, quartz,
and mica.
- **Sedimentary Rocks**: Host evaporites (halite, gypsum),
carbonates (limestone), and clays.
- **Metamorphic Rocks**: Contain garnet, kyanite, and talc.
- **Hydrothermal Veins**: Concentrate gold, silver, copper,
and zinc.
- **Placer Deposits**: Heavy minerals like gold and platinum
accumulate in riverbeds.
- **Ocean Floor**: Manganese nodules and hydrothermal sulfide
deposits.
- **Deserts and Salt Flats**: Evaporite minerals form as water
evaporates.
Minerals are also found beyond Earth—on the Moon, Mars, and
asteroids—providing insights into planetary formation and potential future
resource extraction.
The Role of Minerals in
Industry and Technology
Minerals are indispensable to modern civilization. Nearly
every product we use contains minerals in some form.
1. Construction and
Infrastructure
- Limestone and gypsum: Cement and plaster
- Sand and gravel: Concrete and road base
- Clay: Bricks and ceramics
- Quartz: Glass production
2. Metals and
Manufacturing
- Iron ore (hematite, magnetite): Steel production
- Bauxite: Source of aluminum
- Copper: Electrical wiring, motors, and electronics
- Zinc and lead: Alloys, batteries, and coatings
3. Electronics and
High-Tech
- Silicon: Semiconductor chips
- Lithium: Rechargeable batteries
- Rare earth elements (e.g., neodymium): Magnets in
smartphones and electric vehicles
- Tantalum: Capacitors in mobile devices
- Indium: Touchscreens and solar panels
4. Energy
- Uranium: Nuclear fuel
- Quartz and feldspar: Solar panel components
- Lithium, cobalt, nickel: Essential for electric vehicle
batteries
5.Agriculture
- Phosphates and potash: Fertilizers critical for crop growth
- Limestone: Neutralizes acidic soils
6. Medicine and Health
- Calcium (from calcite or apatite): Bone health
- Iron (from hematite): Treats anemia
- Iodine (in trace minerals): Prevents thyroid disorders
- Kaolin (clay): Used in medicines and skincare products
7. Gemstones and
Jewelry
- Diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald: Precious gems
- Amethyst, topaz, garnet: Semi-precious stones
- Opal, turquoise: Ornamental minerals
Minerals and Human
Health
While we don’t consume minerals in their raw form, the
elements they contain are essential for biological functions. These are known
as **dietary minerals** or **essential nutrients**.
Major Minerals
(required in amounts >100 mg/day):
- Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chloride, magnesium,
sulfur
Trace Minerals
(required in small amounts):
- Iron, zinc, copper, iodine, selenium, manganese, fluoride,
chromium
Deficiencies can lead to serious health issues:
- Iron deficiency → anemia
- Iodine deficiency → goiter and cognitive impairments
- Calcium deficiency → osteoporosis
- Zinc deficiency → impaired immunity and growth
These nutrients originate from the weathering of rocks and
minerals in the soil, entering the food chain through plants and water.
Environmental and
Ethical Challenges
The extraction and use of minerals come with significant
environmental and social costs.
1. Mining Impacts
- Habitat destruction
- Water pollution from acid mine drainage
- Air pollution and dust
- Soil erosion and landscape alteration
2. Resource Depletion
Some minerals, like rare earth elements and cobalt, are finite
and geographically concentrated, leading to supply chain vulnerabilities.
3. Conflict Minerals
Tin, tantalum, tungsten, and gold (the "3TGs") have
been linked to armed conflict in regions like the Democratic Republic of Congo,
where mining funds militias.
4. Sustainable Practices
Efforts include:
- Recycling metals from e-waste
- Ethical sourcing and certification (e.g., Fairmined gold)
- Reducing environmental impact through technology
- Urban mining—recovering minerals from discarded electronics
The Future of Minerals
As the world transitions to renewable energy and digital
technology, demand for critical minerals is soaring.
- **Lithium, cobalt, nickel**: For electric vehicle batteries
- **Copper**: Essential for electrical infrastructure
- **Rare earths**: For wind turbines and high-efficiency
motors
Future frontiers include:
- Deep-sea mining for manganese nodules
- Asteroid mining for platinum-group metals
- Synthetic alternatives and material efficiency
- Improved recycling technologies
Understanding mineral resources is now a matter of national
security and economic resilience.
Cultural and Historical
Significance
Minerals have shaped human history:
- **Stone Age**: Tools from flint and obsidian
- **Bronze and Iron Ages**: Metallurgy revolutionized
societies
- **Ancient Civilizations**: Egyptians used lapis lazuli;
Romans mined silver
- **Gold Rushes**: Drove exploration and migration
- **Gemstones**: Symbols of power, beauty, and spirituality
Even today, gold and diamonds influence global markets and
cultural values.
How to Study and
Identify Minerals
Whether you're a student or hobbyist, mineral identification
involves observation and testing.
Tools:
- Hand lens
- Streak plate
- Glass plate or nail
- Magnet
- Dilute HCl
- Balance
Steps:
1. Observe color, luster, and crystal shape.
2. Test hardness.
3. Check streak.
4. Examine cleavage or fracture.
5. Perform special tests.
6. Compare to identification charts.
Apps and field guides now assist with digital identification.
Conclusion: The Silent
Architects of Our World
Minerals are the silent architects of our planet—forming the
ground beneath our feet, the tools in our hands, and the nutrients in our
bodies. They are not merely geological curiosities but essential components of
life, industry, and progress. From the calcium in our bones to the lithium in
our phones, minerals connect us to the deep history and dynamic processes of
the Earth.
As we face the challenges of sustainability, climate change,
and technological advancement, understanding minerals becomes more critical
than ever. Their responsible use, ethical sourcing, and efficient recycling
will determine the health of our planet and the future of human civilization.
In the quiet, crystalline order of a mineral lies the story of
the Earth—a story of transformation, resilience, and interconnectedness. To
study minerals is to uncover the hidden foundations of our world and to
appreciate the profound beauty of nature’s most enduring creations.
Common Doubt Clarified
1. **What is a mineral?**
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a
definite chemical composition and an ordered internal crystal structure.
2. **Are all rocks made of minerals?**
Yes, rocks are composed of one or more minerals or
mineral-like substances (such as volcanic glass).
3. **Can a mineral be man-made?**
Synthetic versions exist (e.g., lab-grown diamonds), but they
are not considered true minerals unless they match natural ones in composition
and structure.
4. **What is the most common mineral in Earth’s crust?**
Feldspar is the most abundant mineral, followed by quartz.
5. **How many minerals are known to science?**
Over 5,800 mineral species have been officially recognized,
with new ones discovered regularly.
6. **Is coal a mineral?**
No, coal is organic in origin (formed from plant material), so
it does not meet the inorganic requirement for minerals.
7. **Is water a mineral?**
Liquid water is not a mineral, but ice (frozen H₂O) is
considered a mineral when naturally formed.
8. **What makes a mineral crystalline?**
A crystalline structure means the atoms are arranged in a
repeating, three-dimensional pattern called a crystal lattice.
9. **How do geologists identify minerals?**
They use physical properties such as hardness, streak, luster,
cleavage, density, and chemical tests.
10. **What is the Mohs Hardness Scale?**
It is a scale from 1 to 10 that measures a mineral’s
resistance to scratching, with talc at 1 and diamond at 10.
11. **Why is quartz so common?**
Quartz (SiO₂) is chemically stable, resistant to weathering,
and forms in a wide range of geological environments.
12. **What is the rarest mineral on Earth?**
Some of the rarest include painite, fingerite, and
serendibite, found in only a few locations worldwide.
13. **Can minerals change over time?**
Yes, through weathering, metamorphism, or chemical reactions,
minerals can transform into new ones.
14. **What is a gemstone?**
A gemstone is a mineral (or organic material) that is cut and
polished for jewelry due to its beauty, durability, and rarity.
15. **Are all minerals solid?**
Yes, by scientific definition, minerals are solids under
normal Earth surface conditions.
16. **What is the softest mineral?**
Talc is the softest mineral, with a Mohs hardness of 1.
17. **What is the hardest mineral?**
Diamond is the hardest known natural mineral, rated 10 on the
Mohs scale.
18. **Do minerals have biological functions?**
Yes, the elements in minerals (like calcium, iron, zinc) are
essential nutrients for human and animal health.
19. **How are minerals formed in nature?**
Through processes such as magma cooling, evaporation,
precipitation, metamorphism, and biological activity.
20. **What is the difference between cleavage and
fracture?**
Cleavage is breakage along smooth, flat planes due to atomic
structure; fracture is irregular breakage.
21. **Can a mineral have more than one color?**
Yes, impurities or structural defects can cause color
variations—e.g., amethyst is purple quartz due to iron.
22. **What is the streak test used for?**
It helps identify minerals by the color of their powder, which
is more consistent than surface color.
23. **Why does calcite fizz with acid?**
Calcite (CaCO₃) reacts with acid to produce carbon dioxide gas
(CO₂), a key test for carbonate minerals.
24. **What are ore minerals?**
Ore minerals contain valuable metals (like gold, copper, iron)
that can be extracted profitably.
25. **How are minerals mined?**
Through surface mining (open-pit, strip mining) or underground
mining, depending on depth and concentration.
26. **Can minerals be recycled?**
Yes, metals like aluminum, copper, and gold are commonly
recycled from scrap and electronic waste.
27. **What are industrial minerals?**
Non-metallic minerals used in manufacturing, construction, and
agriculture—e.g., limestone, gypsum, clay.
28. **Are diamonds rare?**
Gem-quality diamonds are rare, but industrial diamonds are
more common. Most diamonds are used in cutting tools.
29. **What is the most valuable mineral?**
Value depends on rarity and demand. Gem-quality diamonds,
emeralds, and jadeite can be extremely valuable.
30. **Can minerals glow under UV light?**
Yes, some minerals like fluorite, calcite, and willemite
exhibit fluorescence when exposed to ultraviolet light.
31. **How do minerals contribute to soil fertility?**
Weathering of minerals releases essential nutrients like
potassium, phosphorus, and calcium into the soil.
32. **What is a mineraloid?**
A mineraloid is a naturally occurring substance that resembles
a mineral but lacks a crystalline structure—e.g., opal, obsidian.
33. **Do other planets have minerals?**
Yes, Mars, the Moon, and asteroids have minerals like olivine,
pyroxene, and hematite, similar to Earth.
34. **How can I start collecting minerals?**
Begin with common specimens, use a field guide, join a mineral
club, and learn identification techniques.
35. **What is the difference between a mineral and a
rock?**
A mineral is a single chemical compound with a defined
structure; a rock is a solid mass made of one or more minerals.
36. **Why are silicate minerals so abundant?**
Silicon and oxygen are the two most common elements in Earth’s
crust, making silicates the dominant mineral group.
37. **What is specific gravity?**
It is the ratio of a mineral’s density to that of water. It
helps distinguish heavy minerals like galena from lighter ones.
38. **Can minerals be radioactive?**
Yes, some minerals like uraninite and autunite contain
radioactive elements such as uranium and thorium.
39. **What role do minerals play in human health?**
Essential minerals like calcium, iron, zinc, and iodine
support bodily functions including bone health, oxygen transport, and
metabolism.
40. **Are there minerals in everyday products?**
Yes, minerals are in glass (quartz), toothpaste (fluorite),
electronics (copper, lithium), and construction materials (gypsum, limestone).
Disclaimer: The content on this blog is for informational purposes only. Author's opinions are personal and not endorsed. Efforts are made to provide accurate information, but completeness, accuracy, or reliability are not guaranteed. Author is not liable for any loss or damage resulting from the use of this blog. It is recommended to use information on this blog at your own terms.
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