The Unseen Universe: A Deep Dive into the World of Non-Metals Take a deep breath. The air filling your lungs is a life-giving cocktail, but ...
The Unseen Universe: A Deep Dive into the World of Non-Metals
Take a deep breath. The air filling your lungs is a life-giving cocktail, but it is dominated not by a metal, but by two non-metals: nitrogen and oxygen. The water you drink, the very essence of life, is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. The carbon that forms the fundamental backbone of every cell in your body, the DNA that defines you, the proteins that keep you moving—all are built from the versatile chemistry of non-metals. We live in a world that we often perceive through the lens of metals: the steel in our buildings, the copper in our wires, the gold in our jewelry. They are solid, strong, and conspicuous. Yet, the silent, invisible, and often overlooked world of non-metals is arguably more fundamental to our existence. They are the architects of life, the masters of the atmosphere, and the unsung heroes of modern technology. This journey will take us deep into their realm, exploring their unique properties, their fascinating behaviors, and their indispensable roles in shaping our world and our future. We will move beyond the simple definitions and discover the true character of these elements, from the inert nobility of helium to the voracious reactivity of fluorine, from the simple elegance of hydrogen to the infinite complexity of carbon. Welcome to the vast and vital world of non-metals.
To understand what a non-metal is, we must first
understand what it is not. Metals, the other major class of elements, are
characterized by a suite of familiar properties: they are typically solid at
room temperature (with mercury being the notable exception), they are excellent
conductors of heat and electricity, they possess a characteristic metallic
luster or shine, they are malleable (can be hammered into sheets), and they are
ductile (can be drawn into wires). Non-metals, in contrast, are defined by their
general lack of these metallic attributes. This definition by negation,
however, barely scratches the surface of their diverse and intriguing nature.
On the periodic table of elements, the non-metals
claim a specific territory. They are clustered on the upper right-hand side,
separated from the metals by a dramatic, stair-stepped line that begins between
boron and aluminum and descends through silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony,
and tellurium. The elements that touch this line, like silicon and germanium,
are known as metalloids, possessing properties intermediate between metals and
non-metals. The true non-metals, however, lie entirely to the right of this
boundary. This group includes seventeen elements that are as varied in their
physical state and chemical behavior as they are in their applications.
The physical properties of non-metals are a study
in contrasts. Unlike the uniformly solid nature of most metals, non-metals can
be found in all three states of matter at room temperature. Two, bromine and
mercury (the latter a metal), are liquids. Eleven are gases, including the
entire suite of noble gases, the halogens chlorine and fluorine, and the
life-sustaining elements hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The remaining four are
solids: carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, and iodine. Their appearance is equally diverse.
While metals share a common shine, non-metals can be dull and waxy
(phosphorus), brittle and crystalline (sulfur and iodine), brilliantly colorful
(chlorine is a pale yellow-green gas, bromine a reddish-brown liquid), or
completely invisible and colorless (oxygen, nitrogen).
When it comes to thermal and electrical
conductivity, non-metals are, for the most part, poor conductors. They are
insulators. This is why plastic coatings (made from carbon-based polymers) are
used to cover electrical wires. This property stems from their electron
configuration. Non-metals have a high electronegativity, meaning they have a
strong tendency to attract and hold onto electrons. In a solid state, their
electrons are tightly bound to their respective atoms and are not free to move
and carry a current, unlike the delocalized "sea of electrons" found
in metallic bonds. There are, of course, notable exceptions that highlight the
diversity of this group. Carbon, in its graphite form, is a good conductor of
electricity, a property exploited in electrodes and pencils. And silicon, a
metalloid but often studied alongside non-metals, is a semiconductor, the very
foundation of the digital revolution. Its conductivity can be precisely
controlled, making it the perfect material for transistors and microchips.
Chemically, non-metals are just as varied. They
have high ionization energies, meaning it takes a lot of energy to remove an
electron from them. This is the opposite of metals, which have low ionization
energies and readily lose electrons to form positive ions (cations).
Non-metals, with their high electronegativity, are far more likely to gain
electrons from other atoms to complete their outer electron shells, forming
negative ions (anions). When a highly reactive metal like sodium meets a highly
reactive non-metal like chlorine, sodium gives up an electron, becoming a
sodium cation (Na+), and chlorine accepts it, becoming a chloride anion (Cl-).
The electrostatic attraction between these oppositely charged ions forms an
ionic bond, creating the compound sodium chloride, or common table salt.
However, the most characteristic form of bonding
for non-metals is not ionic, but covalent. When two non-metals react, neither
atom has a strong tendency to give up an electron completely. Instead, they
share one or more pairs of electrons, achieving a stable electron configuration
together. This sharing of electrons creates a covalent bond, which forms the
basis of the molecules that make up the vast majority of the world around us,
from the water in our oceans to the proteins in our bodies. The ability of
non-metals, particularly carbon, to form long chains and complex rings by
covalently bonding to themselves and other elements is the foundation of
organic chemistry, the chemistry of life.
To truly appreciate the world of non-metals, we
must meet its inhabitants individually. Each element has its own distinct
personality, its own quirks, and its own vital role to play.
Hydrogen sits in a class of its own. Perched alone
at the top of the periodic table, it is the simplest, lightest, and most
abundant element in the universe. Its atom consists of just one proton and one
electron. This simplicity gives it unique properties that don't fit neatly into
any single group. Like the Group 1 alkali metals, it has one electron in its
outer shell and can lose it to form a H+ cation, a proton. But like the Group
17 halogens, it is a non-metal that needs just one more electron to fill its
shell and can gain one to form a H- hydride ion. It most commonly forms
covalent bonds, sharing its single electron, as it does in the water molecule
(H2O). Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, and highly flammable gas. It is the
fuel that powers the stars through nuclear fusion, and on Earth, it holds
promise as a clean energy source for the future, producing only water when
burned or used in a fuel cell.
Carbon is the undisputed king of the non-metals,
the element of complexity and versatility. Its unique ability to form four
stable covalent bonds allows it to link with other carbon atoms in long chains,
branched structures, and stable rings. This capacity for catenation, the
bonding of an element to itself, is unparalleled. From this simple tetravalent
nature arises an almost infinite variety of molecules, the field of organic
chemistry. Carbon is the backbone of all known life, forming the structures of
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. But its importance extends
far beyond biology. Carbon's various structural forms, or allotropes, are a
testament to its adaptability. Diamond, in which each carbon atom is covalently
bonded to four others in a strong, rigid three-dimensional lattice, is the
hardest known natural substance. Graphite, in which carbon atoms are arranged
in flat, two-dimensional sheets that are weakly held together, is soft,
slippery, and a good conductor of electricity. More recently, we have
discovered other remarkable allotropes. Fullerenes are spherical molecules of
carbon, like C60, resembling a microscopic soccer ball. Carbon nanotubes are
cylindrical sheets of graphene (a single layer of graphite) that are
exceptionally strong and conductive. Graphene itself, a single atom-thick
sheet, is a revolutionary material with extraordinary strength, flexibility,
and conductivity, promising to transform everything from electronics to
medicine.
Nitrogen is the quiet majority of our atmosphere,
making up about seventy-eight percent of the air we breathe. It is a colorless,
odorless, and largely inert gas in its N2 form. Its inertness comes from the
incredibly strong triple covalent bond that holds the two nitrogen atoms
together. Breaking this bond requires a significant amount of energy, which is
why nitrogen gas doesn't readily participate in chemical reactions under normal
conditions. This stability is a blessing; a more reactive atmospheric gas would
make the surface of Earth a highly corrosive place. However, this inertness
also poses a challenge for life. Living organisms need nitrogen to build
crucial molecules like amino acids and nucleic acids, but they cannot use the
N2 gas directly from the air. This problem is solved by nitrogen fixation, a
process carried out by certain bacteria and lightning strikes that convert
atmospheric nitrogen into more reactive compounds like ammonia (NH3). These
nitrogenous compounds are then used by plants, entering the food chain.
Industrially, the Haber-Bosch process mimics this natural process on a massive
scale to produce ammonia for fertilizers, a development that has been critical
in supporting the global human population.
Oxygen is the element of reactivity and
respiration. It is the third most abundant element in the universe and the most
abundant element in the Earth's crust. As a gas (O2), it is essential for the
respiration of most living organisms, a process that releases energy from food.
Its high electronegativity makes it a powerful oxidizing agent, eager to accept
electrons from other substances. This property is responsible for combustion,
or burning, and for the corrosion of metals, known as rusting. Oxygen is not
just found as O2. It also exists as ozone (O3), a pale blue gas with a sharp
odor. In the upper atmosphere, the ozone layer plays a vital role by absorbing
most of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation, protecting life on Earth.
Closer to the ground, however, ozone is a pollutant and a major component of
smog. Oxygen's ability to form covalent bonds with almost every other element
leads to a vast array of compounds known as oxides, many of which form the
rocks and minerals of our planet.
The Halogens, The Reactive Non-Metals
The Group 17 elements—fluorine, chlorine, bromine,
iodine, and the rare astatine—are collectively known as the halogens, a name
derived from Greek words meaning "salt-formers." They are the most
reactive non-metals, and indeed, among the most reactive of all elements. This
high reactivity is due to their electron configuration; they all have seven
electrons in their outer shell and are desperate to gain one more to achieve a
stable state. Their reactivity decreases as you move down the group. Fluorine,
perched at the top, is the most electronegative and reactive element known,
capable of reacting with almost anything, even glass. Chlorine is a highly
toxic, pale yellow-green gas with a choking odor, famous for its use as a
disinfectant in swimming pools and drinking water. Bromine is the only
non-metal that is a liquid at room temperature, a reddish-brown, volatile
substance. Iodine is a dark, crystalline solid that sublimates, turning
directly into a beautiful violet vapor when heated. Halogens readily form ionic
salts with metals, such as sodium chloride (table salt) and potassium iodide (a
nutritional supplement). They also form covalent compounds with each other
(interhalogen compounds) and with other non-metals. Their uses are widespread,
from the CFCs in old refrigerators (now being phased out due to their
environmental impact) to the fluorine in Teflon and the chlorine in PVC
plastic.
In stark contrast to the boisterous reactivity of
the halogens are the Group 18 elements, the noble gases: helium, neon, argon,
krypton, xenon, and the radioactive radon. They are the aristocrats of the
periodic table, aloof and non-reactive. Their inertness stems from their
perfect electron configuration; they have a complete outer shell of electrons,
making them extremely stable and giving them no desire to gain, lose, or share
electrons. For a long time, it was believed that they were completely incapable
of forming compounds. While they are indeed far less reactive than any other
group, chemists have since managed to coax some of the heavier noble gases,
like xenon and krypton, into forming a few stable compounds, primarily with
highly electronegative elements like fluorine and oxygen. Helium is the second
lightest element and is famous for its use in party balloons and blimps because
it is much lighter than air and non-flammable, unlike hydrogen. Neon gives the
characteristic red-orange glow to neon signs. Argon, the most abundant noble
gas in our atmosphere, is used as an inert shielding gas in welding and in
incandescent light bulbs to prevent the filament from oxidizing. Their unique
properties, particularly their lack of reactivity and their response to
electricity, make them indispensable in lighting, lasers, and other specialized
applications.
Beyond these major groups, other non-metals play
critical supporting roles. The chalcogens (Group 16), which we have already met
in the form of oxygen and sulfur, also include selenium and tellurium. Sulfur
is a bright yellow, brittle solid known for its distinct "rotten egg"
odor when burned. It is essential for life, found in certain amino acids and
vitamins, and is the key ingredient in sulfuric acid, the world's most
important industrial chemical, used in everything from fertilizer production to
petroleum refining. Selenium is a semiconductor with photoconductive
properties, making it useful in photocells and solar panels.
The pnictogens (Group 15) include nitrogen and
phosphorus. Phosphorus is a highly reactive non-metal that exists in several
allotropic forms. White phosphorus is a waxy, toxic solid that glows in the
dark (a phenomenon called chemiluminescence) and spontaneously ignites in air.
It is stored under water. More stable forms include red phosphorus, used in
safety matches, and black phosphorus, which has a layered structure similar to
graphite. Phosphorus is a vital component of DNA and RNA (in the sugar-phosphate
backbone) and of ATP, the molecule that carries energy within cells. Its
compounds are also the primary ingredients in agricultural fertilizers.
The true wonder of non-metals is revealed not when
we look at them in isolation, but when we observe how they interact. Their
chemistry is the chemistry of connection, sharing, and transformation, governed
by the fundamental principles of bonding and reactivity.
The Power of Sharing: Covalent Bonding in Detail
The covalent bond is the signature of non-metal
chemistry. It is a delicate dance of shared electrons, a partnership that
creates stable molecules from individual atoms. The number of covalent bonds an
atom can form is determined by the number of electrons it needs to fill its
outer shell. Hydrogen needs one, so it forms one bond. Oxygen needs two, so it
forms two bonds. Nitrogen needs three, and carbon needs four. This simple rule
underlies the structure of countless molecules. In a water molecule (H2O), the
oxygen atom forms a single covalent bond with each of two hydrogen atoms,
sharing one electron with each. In a nitrogen molecule (N2), the two nitrogen
atoms share three pairs of electrons, forming a powerful triple bond. In a
methane molecule (CH4), the central carbon atom forms a single covalent bond
with four hydrogen atoms.
These covalent bonds are not just simple
connections; they have a three-dimensional shape that determines the properties
of the molecule. The concept of electronegativity, the atom's pull on shared
electrons, introduces polarity into these bonds. When two identical atoms bond,
like in H2 or O2, the electrons are shared equally, and the bond is nonpolar.
But when a highly electronegative atom like oxygen bonds with a less
electronegative atom like hydrogen, the electrons are pulled closer to the
oxygen atom. This creates a partial negative charge on the oxygen and a partial
positive charge on the hydrogen, resulting in a polar covalent bond. This
polarity is crucial. It is what makes water an excellent solvent, as the polar
water molecules can surround and dissolve other polar or ionic substances. It
is also what gives water its unique properties, like its high boiling point and
its ability to form ice, which is less dense than liquid water, allowing ice to
float and insulate the water below.
While covalent bonding is the preferred method of
interaction between non-metals, their high electronegativity also makes them
adept at forming anions, or negatively charged ions. When a non-metal atom
encounters a metal atom, the vast difference in electronegativity leads to a
complete transfer of electrons. The non-metal, with its strong pull, strips one
or more electrons from the metal. This transfer gives the non-metal a full
outer shell and a net negative charge. For example, a chlorine atom will gain one
electron from a sodium atom to become a chloride anion (Cl-). An oxygen atom
will gain two electrons from a magnesium atom to become an oxide anion (O2-).
These anions are the building blocks of ionic compounds, the crystalline salts
that are so common in nature. The properties of these anions, such as their
size and charge, are critical in determining the structure and properties of
the resulting ionic solid.
The relationship between non-metals and acids is a
cornerstone of chemistry. When most non-metals react with oxygen, they form
non-metal oxides. A defining characteristic of these oxides is that they are
acidic oxides. When they dissolve in water, they react to form acids. For
example, sulfur dioxide (SO2), a pollutant from burning fossil fuels, dissolves
in rainwater to form sulfurous acid (H2SO3). Sulfur trioxide (SO3) reacts with
water to form sulfuric acid (H2SO3). Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in water to
form carbonic acid (H2CO3), the acid that gives soft drinks their fizz and
contributes to the acidification of oceans. This behavior is in direct contrast
to metal oxides, which are typically basic and form alkaline solutions (bases)
when dissolved in water. The ability of non-metals to form the precursors to
acids is central to countless industrial processes and natural phenomena, from
the production of fertilizers to the formation of acid rain.
Allotropy is the phenomenon where an element
exists in two or more different physical forms in the same state. While some
metals exhibit allotropy, it is particularly common and pronounced among the
non-metals, especially carbon, phosphorus, and sulfur. The different allotropes
of an element have the same chemical properties but vastly different physical
properties because their atoms are arranged in different ways. We have already
seen this with carbon: the hard, transparent diamond and the soft, opaque graphite
are both pure carbon, yet their properties are worlds apart due to their
different crystal structures. Phosphorus exists as highly reactive white
phosphorus, more stable red phosphorus, and layered black phosphorus. Sulfur
has over thirty different allotropes, the most stable of which at room
temperature is an eight-membered ring molecule (S8) that packs together to form
a yellow crystalline solid. Allotropy is a powerful demonstration of the
principle that in chemistry, structure dictates function. By arranging the same
atoms in different ways, nature creates materials with entirely different
characteristics, a concept that materials scientists exploit to create new and
improved substances.
The abstract principles of non-metal chemistry
translate into a tangible and profound impact on every facet of our existence.
They are the threads woven into the fabric of biology, industry, and the
environment itself.
The Building Blocks of Life: CHNOPS
If you were to list the most important elements
for life on Earth, six would dominate the list: Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen,
Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur, often remembered by the acronym CHNOPS. These
six non-metals make up over ninety-nine percent of the mass of the human body
and all other known life forms.
Carbon is the master builder, forming the
skeletons of all organic molecules. Hydrogen and oxygen are the components of
water, the universal solvent and the medium in which all life's chemistry takes
place. They are also key parts of all organic molecules and are central to
energy-releasing reactions like respiration. Nitrogen is a crucial component of
amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, and nucleic acids like DNA and
RNA, the molecules of heredity. Phosphorus provides the energy currency for the
cell in the form of ATP and forms the structural backbone of DNA and RNA.
Sulfur is found in two essential amino acids and is vital for the
three-dimensional folding and function of many proteins. Without these six
non-metals, life as we know it would simply not exist. Their unique chemical
properties, particularly carbon's ability to form complex covalent structures,
make the intricate molecular machinery of life possible.
Beyond biology, non-metals are the workhorses of
modern industry and the enablers of cutting-edge technology. Silicon, a
metalloid with non-metallic characteristics, is the bedrock of the digital age.
Its semiconducting properties are harnessed to create the transistors, diodes,
and integrated circuits that form the brains of every computer, smartphone, and
electronic device.
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4), produced from the non-metal
sulfur, is often called the "king of chemicals" due to its enormous
industrial importance. It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers, pigments,
dyes, drugs, explosives, detergents, and batteries. The production of sulfuric
acid is a key indicator of a country's industrial strength.
The halogens are indispensable in countless
applications. Chlorine is used to purify drinking water and manufacture a vast
range of plastics, including PVC. Fluorine, despite its extreme reactivity, is
used to make non-stick coatings like Teflon and to produce uranium
hexafluoride, a compound critical for nuclear fuel processing and enrichment.
Iodine is an essential nutrient, used as an antiseptic, and is a key component
in LCD displays.
The noble gases find their niche in specialized
technologies. Argon provides an inert atmosphere for welding and metal
production. Helium is used as a coolant for superconducting magnets in MRI
machines and particle accelerators. Neon, krypton, and xenon are used in
high-intensity lighting and lasers. Even the seemingly useless radon has
applications in cancer radiotherapy, despite its radioactive dangers.
Non-metals are the principal actors in Earth's
grand biogeochemical cycles, the natural processes that recycle essential
elements through the planet's ecosystems. The carbon cycle describes the
movement of carbon between the atmosphere, oceans, biosphere, and geosphere.
The burning of fossil fuels releases vast amounts of carbon dioxide, a
non-metal oxide, into the atmosphere, disrupting this cycle and contributing to
anthropogenic climate change. The nitrogen cycle, driven by the conversion of
inert N2 gas into usable forms by bacteria, is essential for plant growth and
life on land. The sulfur cycle involves the movement of sulfur through the
atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, impacting weather patterns and soil
fertility.
Non-metals also protect our planet. The ozone
layer, a region of the stratosphere rich in the non-metal allotrope ozone (O3),
acts as a planetary sunscreen, shielding life from harmful ultraviolet
radiation. The depletion of this layer by man-made chemicals like CFCs (which
contain chlorine and fluorine) was a major environmental crisis, leading to
international agreements to phase out these harmful substances.
As we look to the future, non-metals are poised to
play an even more critical role in addressing some of humanity's greatest
challenges. The quest for clean, sustainable energy is deeply intertwined with
non-metal chemistry. Hydrogen is being hailed as a potential fuel of the
future. When used in a fuel cell, it combines with oxygen to produce
electricity, with water as the only byproduct. The challenge lies in producing
hydrogen cleanly from sources like water using renewable energy, a process
known as electrolysis.
Sulfur is emerging as a key component in
next-generation batteries. Lithium-sulfur batteries have the potential to store
much more energy than traditional lithium-ion batteries, which could lead to
longer-range electric vehicles and more effective energy storage for renewable
power grids.
Carbon continues to be at the forefront of
materials science. The development of new carbon-based materials like graphene
and carbon nanotubes promises revolutions in electronics, medicine, and
engineering. Graphene's incredible strength and conductivity could lead to
faster, more efficient computers, flexible displays, and powerful new sensors.
Carbon nanotubes could be used to create ultra-strong composite materials for
everything from airplanes to sports equipment.
Furthermore, understanding and manipulating
non-metal chemistry will be essential for environmental remediation. Developing
new catalysts to convert waste carbon dioxide into useful fuels or materials,
creating more efficient methods for nitrogen fixation to reduce the energy
footprint of agriculture, and monitoring and protecting the ozone layer are all
challenges that will be met through a deeper understanding of these fundamental
elements.
From the air we breathe to the thoughts we think,
from the clothes we wear to the screens we read, the influence of non-metals is
absolute and pervasive. They are not defined by what they are not, but by what
they are: the elements of connection, complexity, and life. They are the
masters of the covalent bond, the architects of the molecules that make up our
world. They exist in myriad forms, from the inert perfection of a noble gas to
the violent reactivity of fluorine, from the diamond-hard lattice to the
slippery layers of graphite. Their story is a story of diversity, of contrasts,
and of profound importance. While the metals build the framework of our
civilization, it is the non-metals that fill it with life, energy, and
information. To understand them is to understand the very essence of chemistry
and the world itself. They are the unseen universe, a silent but powerful
presence that shapes our past, defines our present, and holds the key to our
future.
What is the main difference between a metal and a
non-metal?
The primary difference lies in their physical and
chemical properties. Metals are typically solid, shiny, good conductors of heat
and electricity, malleable, and ductile. They tend to lose electrons to form
positive ions (cations). Non-metals, on the other hand, can be solids, liquids,
or gases, are generally dull in appearance, are poor conductors, and are
brittle. They have a high electronegativity and tend to gain or share
electrons, forming negative ions (anions) or covalent bonds.
Why is hydrogen often considered a unique element?
Hydrogen is in a class of its own because it
doesn't fit neatly into any single group of the periodic table. Like the Group
1 alkali metals, it has one electron and can form a cation (H+). Like the Group
17 halogens, it is a non-metal that needs one electron to fill its shell and
can form an anion (H-). However, its most common behavior is forming covalent
bonds by sharing its electron, as in water (H2O). Its unique simplicity and
properties set it apart from all other elements.
What is the most reactive non-metal and why?
Fluorine is the most reactive non-metal, and
indeed the most reactive of all elements. This extreme reactivity is due to its
combination of two factors. Firstly, it has the highest electronegativity of
any element, meaning it has the strongest attraction for electrons. Secondly,
it is a very small atom, so when it gains an electron, the resulting negative
charge is highly concentrated, making the fluoride ion (F-) very stable and the
process of gaining an electron highly favorable.
What is allotropy and why is it common in
non-metals?
Allotropy is the existence of an element in two or
more different physical forms in the same state. These different forms, called
allotropes, have different physical properties because the atoms are arranged
in different ways. It is common in non-metals, especially carbon, phosphorus,
and sulfur, because their ability to form multiple types of covalent bonds
(e.g., single, double, triple bonds) and various ring or chain structures
allows for many different stable atomic arrangements. For example, carbon's atoms
can be arranged in a 3D tetrahedral lattice (diamond) or in 2D sheets
(graphite), resulting in two allotropes with vastly different properties.
How are non-metals essential for life?
Six non-metals—Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen,
Phosphorus, and Sulfur (CHNOPS)—are the fundamental building blocks of all
known life. Carbon forms the backbone of organic molecules. Hydrogen and oxygen
make up water and are part of all major organic molecules. Nitrogen is
essential for amino acids and nucleic acids. Phosphorus is key for energy
transfer (ATP) and the structure of DNA/RNA. Sulfur is vital for the function
of many proteins. Without these non-metals, the complex molecules and processes
that define life could not exist.
What is the difference between ionic and covalent
bonding, and which is more common for non-metals?
Ionic bonding involves the complete transfer of
one or more electrons from a metal atom to a non-metal atom, resulting in
oppositely charged ions that attract each other. Covalent bonding involves the
sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between two atoms. Covalent bonding
is far more common between two non-metals because both atoms have high
electronegativity and neither is willing to completely give up an electron.
Sharing is a more stable arrangement for them. Ionic bonding typically occurs
between a metal (low electronegativity) and a non-metal (high
electronegativity).
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